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WORLD'S EARLIEST MAPS?

A set of broken stones covered with manmade lines and squares, discovered at a 5,000-year-old sacred site in Denmark, may be some of humankind's earliest maps, according to archaeologists. The researchers think the stones are symbolic maps of local landscapes and were perhaps used in ceremonies by Stone Age farmers who hoped to magically influence the sun to increase the productivity of their farmlands. Pieces of 10 of the "map stones" or "landscape stones" were found in June, during an archaeological dig of a round, earth-walled 'village' at the Vasagard archaeological site on Bornholm, a Danish island in the Baltic Sea.

Excavations in the area since the 1990s have revealed hundreds of broken flat stones decorated with patterns of straight lines starting off from a central point. They are called "sun stones" or "solar stones" ("solstenen" in Danish) because of their resemblance to a drawing of the sun. Archaeologists have said these artifacts are likely from the ceremonies of a Neolithic sun-worshipping religion that existed about 5,000 years ago.

But the map stones are inscribed with a set of totally different pattern of squares and lines that look like fields, fences and plants, said archaeologist Flemming Kaul, the senior researcher in prehistory at the National Museum of Denmark.

"There was one particular stone that seems to be rather complicated, and we all agree that it looks like some sort of a map — not a map in our modern sense, but a stylized map," Kaul told Live Science. "And I could see some similarities with rock symbols from the Alps in northern Italy, dated to the same period of time, which are interpreted as symbolic landscapes — and that is what I believe we have found now."

The most detailed of the newly discovered map stones went on display in October at the Moesgaard Museum in Aarhus, Denmark. It measures about 2 inches (5 centimeters) across and has been broken into three pieces. One triangular piece has not yet been found, the researchers said. Kaul said the stone was probably crushed during an ancient ceremony, like what the researchers saw with many sun stones also found at the site. The pieces were then placed in the ditches that surround the sacred area sometime between 2900 B.C. and 2700 B.C., according to the archaeologists.

MAGNETIC DEVICES MAY EASE PAIN CAUSED BY MIGRAINES

Good news for all those who suffer migraine headaches. A device has been developed that emits magnetic pulses which may reduce pain for certain migraine sufferers who get an early warning of their headaches. (1) _______ Other indications of imminent headaches could be a ringing sound in the ears or numbness in parts of the body.

Doctors now think this type of migraine is caused by a wave of electrical charges sweeping across your brain cells. The wave excites the cells and activity is followed by a phase which is called 'cortical spreading depression'. (2) _______ Medical scientists are now testing treatments to disrupt these electrically-charged waves in the hope of calming or even preventing the pain. One such treatment is magnetic stimulation, using a device which sends out magnetic pulses.

(3) _______

In the study, people who treated their 'migraines with aura' using the device were more likely to be free from pain after two hours. (4) _______ The latter group fell into a 'much less likely' category. All the people in the study were asked not to use painkillers until at least two hours after using the device. (5) _______ Further studies, including their interaction with the magnetic device, are planned.

How reliable are the findings? Well, the researchers took a lot of trouble to ensure that the 200 people in the study did not know if they had a real or fake device. Moreover, they were asked to decide whether they believed the treatment was real or not. The results showed they could not tell the difference. (6) _______ The study was carried out by researchers from universities in the US and funded by the manufacturers of the device. Some of the researchers worked for the company. This does not make the study unreliable but we should be aware that they have an interest in a positive outcome for the product they are testing.

A. If you have ever wanted to learn a martial art but were put off by the actual words and their obvious roots in warfare, think again. Discover the art of Aikido. It is a way of defending yourself but not just that. The philosophy behind Aikido involves the notion of protecting the attacker from injury by redirecting force. Indeed, attack is banned in Aikido. Although based upon traditional Japanese principles, Aikido appeared in the 1920s/1930s. The key is a harmonious philosophy, mixing hard physical training and spiritual discipline. The lack of competitiveness within Aikido means participants help each other as they train. As in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are physical and mental aspects of training. Fitness is crucial but relaxation, flexibility and endurance, rather than strength, are emphasised.

B. I love everything Brazilian and, during a trip purely for exercise and discipline there some years ago, I visited San Salvador, the third largest city. Walking through a park, I saw a circle of young men with another in the middle who seemed to be dancing and aiming kicks at the others. What intrigued me was that the kicks and attempted head-butts never actually made contact. I was observing Capoeira, a kind of martial art with acrobatics, dancing and music integral to the activity. The art of Capoeira is uniquely identified by swinging hips, arm stands and sweeping feet movements. This requires agility and strength. Its roots lie in Africa and for a time remained forbidden in Brazil, only becoming legal in the 1930s. Whether it can be classified as a true martial art is debatable but the theatricality of the feigned attacks is delightful to watch.

C. Hi — you asked me about Taekwondo in your last email. Well, it's Korean and is the national sport of South Korea. It can be translated as 'the way of the foot and fist' and is the world's most popular martial art. Estimates of current practitioners vary from 30 to 70 million. To master it, you need strength, speed, balance and flexibility but it's a sport for both genders and all ages and its relaxation and meditation content makes it an all-round activity. The actual history of Taekwondo is controversial and even today there are two distinct branches. The traditional form is all about power and self-defence and is used by the military and police force. Sport Taekwondo is more about speed and competition. The two forms, however, are not mutually exclusive and the distinctions are often blurred. Are you, by any chance, considering learning it?

D. Visitors to China have been known to get confused by the meaning of 'Wushu' as it can be used as a general term for martial arts in the world in the same way as Kung-Fu. However, it has also become the name for a modern sport primarily aimed at exhibition and competition, with the introduction of more acrobatic jumps which give an enhanced visual effect. All training must be so-called 'internal' and 'external'. The former includes aspects of the heart, spirit, mind, breathing and strength. The latter concentrates on hands, eyes and stances. Meditation is also regarded as a fundamental component of initial training to help with focus and mental clarity. Traditional Chinese schools of martial arts also taught them as a system of ethics alongside the more obvious self-defence and mental training functions that we're all familiar with.

THE WESTERN

Westerns are the major defining genre of the American film industry, even though the 21st century has been the least prolific period of producing such films. The popularity of westerns has waxed and waned over the years and whether the genre will emerge from today's trough and again reach its former dizzy heights of popularity remains to be seen.

The western is possibly the prime means by which America interprets and represents its history to itself. This American art form focuses on the frontier West that existed in North America. Usually set during the last part of the 19th century following the Civil War, westerns often portray the conquest of the wilderness in the name of civilization alongside the removal of the territorial rights of the original inhabitants.

For fans of the western, the allure is the lack of a complicated plot. That said, within westerns there are often complex moral issues that need to be resolved — different issues but all based on a small staple of situations and plots: ranchers v. farmers, Native Americans v. settlers, outlaws v. civilized communities.

The western has left an indelible mark on the world. Thanks to Hollywood, we are all aware of the iconic elements of the western — the gun, the Stetson hat, the stagecoach, the myths and legends of the West. The specific settings, such as ranch houses, isolated forts, saloons and the small town in the middle of nowhere are ubiquitous in everyone's images of a western film. Nevertheless, the eye marvels at the vast, empty prairies, the snow-capped peaks and, most memorable of all, the red rock monoliths of Monument Valley.

It's interesting to note that the first commercial, narrative film was a western: The Great Train Robbery, which came out in 1903. Yet the setting for Sam Peckinpah's controversial and graphically violent film The Wild Bunch is set in 1913, a full decade after audiences watched the first western film. One result of this overlap was that some of the real heroes of the West actually ended up in Hollywood. Wyatt Earp, a major subject of many western films and TV programmes, best known for his participation in the gunfight at the OK Corral, died in 1929, a consultant in the film industry.

The western itself grew in status with the development of the Hollywood studio system. But the early western films, devoid of the sound of gunfire and horses' hoofbeats, were limited in scope, although the best ones established the archetypes that are part of the genre today: good versus bad, a wrongdoing such as a robbery, pursuit and the final showdown.

The genre was hardly prominent in the 1930s. This was not surprising given the technical difficulties at the time with sound recording in the open air — an issue that took time to surmount. Moreover, the studios wanted to exploit the spoken word and the cowboy, like most western heroes, was seldom a loquacious man. What happened was a change to non-violent westerns called 'singing cowboy films', which highlighted the musical and singing talent of their stars. This sub-genre made the studios and stars rich but did little for the integrity of the western itself.

Yet in the following decades, the genre was revived to such a point that the 1940s and 1950s became the heyday of the classic western film, with emphasis on action and character now filmed in glorious colour. From the 1960s, Westerns began to change: the genre became more violent; revisionist films began to show an increasingly positive image of the Native Americans, who had been treated as savages in earlier films; no longer would heroes simply wear a white hat and villains a black hat.